Where is the Arctic?
To describe where the Arctic is, we first need to define what the Arctic is.
Although most people can broadly identify where the Arctic is, that is to say, that portion of sea and land surrounding the North Pole or, more generally, that northernmost portion of the Northern Hemisphere "there is nothing intuitively obvious about the idea of treating the Arctic as a distinct region” (Arctic Human Development Report I). In fact, the definition of the Arctic has long been a subject of debate, and yet no single, clear-cut boundary exists.
Rather, the definition of the Arctic depends largely on the characteristics being considered.
Definition of the Arctic
The word “Arctic” derives from the ancient Greek word arktikos, literally meaning “of the bear”. It refers to the constellations Ursa Major or Ursa Minor, which are associated with the northern sky. For centuries, the Arctic was broadly understood to encompass the northernmost lands and waters of the Northern Hemisphere, although knowledge of the region remained limited.
Although Arctic regions have been inhabited by Indigenous peoples for millennia, for example, the Saqqaq culture, one of the earliest known cultures in Greenland, dates to approximately 2500–800 BC, Western societies had relatively little knowledge of, or interest in, the region until comparatively recent times.
Developing an understanding of the Arctic has been a gradual process that began centuries ago and remains incomplete. This is illustrated by former Icelandic President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson’s well-known statement: “We know more about the moon than the Arctic.”
In modern usage, the Arctic is often defined as the area of land and water north of the Arctic Circle, at approximately 66°33′ N. This imaginary line encircling the globe marks the latitude north of which, in theory, the sun remains above the horizon at the summer solstice, around June 21, and below the horizon at the winter solstice, around December 21. However, atmospheric refraction and other physical effects mean that the midnight sun can also be seen at slightly lower latitudes.
The Arctic Circle does not follow ecological boundaries and may therefore separate neighbouring areas with similar physical characteristics. Additional biophysical and other criteria have consequently been developed to define a more homogeneous region surrounding the North Pole.
Among the biophysical criteria still in use is the 10° July isotherm (view the map). This boundary marks the limit of areas where the average temperature in the warmest month, July, is below 10°C (50°F).
Tree-line
Another criterion used to define the Arctic is the tree line. The tree line, or timberline, is the edge of the habitat in which trees can grow. Beyond it, environmental conditions, usually low temperatures or insufficient moisture, prevent tree growth. Near the tree line, trees are often severely stunted, with the last trees forming low, densely matted bushes.
Where this stunted growth is caused by wind, it is known as a krummholz formation, from the German for “twisted wood”. Like many natural boundaries, the tree line appears well defined from a distance, but closer inspection reveals a gradual transition. Trees become progressively shorter as conditions become less favourable, until they can no longer grow. Extremely cold temperatures can also cause the sap inside trees to freeze.
In addition, permafrost can prevent roots from reaching sufficient depths to provide structural support. Because the climatic zone in which the high-latitude tree line occurs lies almost entirely over the ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, this tree line exists only in the Northern Hemisphere. It crosses northern Siberia, Alaska, Canada and the far north of Scandinavia.
Although these biophysical definitions identify areas with relatively homogeneous physical characteristics, they are less suitable for defining a region with shared economic, political and social characteristics.
Geopolitical relevance
As the geopolitical importance of the Arctic has grown over recent decades, so has interest in defining its boundaries. However, as noted above, there is no single boundary suitable for every purpose. Definitions vary according to whether the focus is environmental, biological, economic, jurisdictional or social (GRID-Arendal).
Arctic and the Arctic Council
In the late 1990s, the Arctic Council’s working groups began extensive work to define the geographical scope of their mandates and better delineate the Arctic in economic, social and political terms. Although the Arctic Council has eight Arctic member states, Canada, the United States, Iceland, the Kingdom of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia, not all of their territory is considered Arctic.
The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) defined its assessment region using a combination of different geographical definitions:
AMAP
AMAP’s assessment boundary reflects both physical geography and political and administrative considerations. Because no single definition met all its assessment needs, AMAP established a geographical framework drawing on several approaches.
The boundary incorporates the Arctic Circle, political boundaries, vegetation boundaries, permafrost limits and major oceanographic features. The assessment region generally includes terrestrial and marine areas north of the Arctic Circle, together with areas north of 62°N in Asia and 60°N in North America. It also includes marine areas north of the Aleutian Islands, Hudson Bay and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Labrador Sea.
The boundary was established to provide geographical context for AMAP’s assessments, particularly when examining sources of pollution within and outside the Arctic. Its relevance varies depending on the issue being considered, so it is applied accordingly.
For example, contaminant levels in wildlife are assessed in relation to the geographical distribution of the species concerned, while demographic data are considered in relation to the administrative regions used to collect census information.
Arctic Human Development Report (I and II)
The Arctic boundaries defined by AMAP have served as the basis for several subsequent definitions, including those used in the Arctic Human Development Reports I and II.
The first Arctic Human Development Report used the geographical area covered by AMAP’s 1997 and 2002 reports as its starting point. However, it adjusted the boundary in some places to reflect administrative and jurisdictional boundaries and the availability of data.
The AHDR definition encompasses a broadly homogeneous cultural, social and economic region covering approximately 40 million km². It includes all of Alaska; Canada north of 60°N, together with northern Quebec and Labrador; all of Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland; and the northernmost counties of Norway, Sweden and Finland.
The Russian portion is more complex. As described in the report, it includes Murmansk Oblast; the Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets, Taimyr and Chukotka autonomous areas; Vorkuta in the Komi Republic; Norilsk and Igarka in Krasnoyarsk Krai; and those parts of the Sakha Republic whose boundaries lie closest to the Arctic Circle.
CAFF
Other Arctic Council working groups, such as Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), have developed their own geographical boundaries using political, climatic and biological criteria.
CAFF’s boundary largely follows the tree line to include the ecosystems that are the focus of its activities.
However, the Arctic Biodiversity Assessment uses a more specifically ecological definition based on the Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Map (CAVM Team, 2003).
So, where is the Arctic?
This brief overview shows that, although the Arctic is generally understood as the region surrounding the North Pole, consisting of a large ocean surrounded by land, there is no universal definition of its boundaries. Depending on the criteria used, large areas of the Northern Hemisphere may or may not be considered Arctic. As GRID-Arendal explains, the boundary changes according to its purpose, whether environmental, biological, economic, jurisdictional or social.